Your Reader

It is critically important to consider the needs of your reader when writing. If you can do this well, everything else follows naturally.

Young, V.L. and K.J. Sampson. Ohio University (2004). Articles>Rhetoric>Writing>Technical Writing

О Риторическом Контексте Проблемы Истины

Прежде всего, о чем мы ведем речь, говоря об истине? Не стоит ли договориться о различении "истины" и "истинности". Обычно под истиной понимается любое истинное суждение. Сказать о некотором суждении, что оно истинно, или сказать, что данное суждение есть истина, не одно ли это и то же? Но это как раз тот случай, когда предположение синонимии свидетельствует о неполноте наших знаний о мире. Синонимия, предполагающая тождество смыслов, является насилием над живым языком и по отношению к естественному языку применима лишь в очевидно ограниченном смысле - как характеристика семантической близости слов. Тождество слов в живом языке такая же немыслимая вещь, как и тождество живых существ в природе.

Migunov, A.I. Argumentation (2002). (Russian) Articles>Rhetoric>Theory

Особенности понимания естественно-языковых аргументов в научном тексте

Аргументацию можно рассматривать как социальную знаковую подсистему (если принять, что системой является язык), которая, как и всякое человеческое знание, создана, по Канту, силой человеческого разума (Kant 1929). Согласно Канту, человеческое знание основано на производимых мышлением операциях структурирования, которые трансформируют ощущения в чувственные образы. Знание есть конструкт человеческого мышления и возникает в результате взаимодействия "узнаваемого" ("knowable") с мыслительными возможностями познающего субъекта. Конструктивные знакообразующие потенции познающих субъектов считаются общими для всех людей. Это не означает, что все познающие субъекты создают идентичные познавательные конструкты; но разнообразие конструктов на некотором абстрактном уровне является отражением категорий, управляющих этим процессом - например, логических (Collins 1954; Kneupper 1977) Всякая социальная реальность становится межсубъектной посредством коммуникации. Важным фактором в становлении или изменении знаковых подсистем является, соответственно, принятие или отвержение структуры знания. Если старая структура знания отвергается или оказывается непригодной для описания или объяснения некоторого объекта, ее место заполняется новой или модифицированной. Поэтому можно говорить о сосуществовании конкурирующих структур знания, каждая из которых, являясь продуктом человеческого разума и человеческого взаимодействия, не может претендовать на абсолютную истину. Следовательно, можно говорить о том, что и аргументативные теории могут быть поразному пригодны для разных целей.

Vasilev, L.G. Argumentation (2002). (Russian) Articles>Scientific Communication>Rhetoric

Письма в Редакцию в Английской Газете: Анализ Аргументации

Предметом данного исследования является анализ построения аргументации в функциональном газетном стиле речи (в рубрике Letters to the Editor). Целью исследования является изучение функционирования аргументации в функциональном газетном стиле и выявление взаимовлияния логического и языкового аспекта аргументации.

Golubev, V.U. and K.V. Gudkova. Argumentation (2002). (Russian) Articles>Rhetoric>Editing

Язык как Форма Жизни

Поворот от сознания к языку обычно расценивают как исток неклассической философии. Он состоит в понимание языка не как нейтрального средства выражения мысли, а как продуктивного медиума, определяющего онтологию бытия и сознания. Однако постановка и решение центральной проблемы значения еще долгое время опирались на классическое понимание истины как соответствия высказывания и реальности. Язык считался средством выражения мыслей и чувств и обозначения предметов. Парадокс состоял в том, что теория значения в семантике выдвигалась для преодоления затруднений классической теории истины и вместе с тем опиралась на нее при анализе и проверке значения. Принцип лингвистической относительности устраняет данный парадокс. Согласно Сепиру и Уорфу, каждый национальный язык содержит свою собственную онтологию. Признание этого тезиса означало, что ни в мысли, ни в действительности не существует чего-то такого, что обусловливает единство языков и дает возможность их понимания и перевода на основе универсальной логической или онтологической структуры. Язык не принимает каких-либо внешних ориентиров, и только в его рамках определяется, что такое "истина", "мир" и "значение". Соответственно, помимо языка не существует независимых масштабов оценки моральности, красоты, блага, рациональности и т.п. Но такая радикальная программа кажется заведомо бесперспективной, ибо обрекает на солипсизм и релятивизм. Если все "языковые миры" признаются изолированными, несоизмеримыми и равноправными, то непонятно, как возможно общение между представителями различными языковых систем. Ведь в современном мультикультурном мире взаимодействуют различные дискурсы и системы взглядов. В связи с этим возникает вопрос о том, что или кто, если не разум, является медиумом, обеспечивающим взаимопонимание и перевод разных языков.

Markov, B.V. Argumentation (2000). Articles>Language>Rhetoric

Review: What Excellence Looks Like

Comments on the magnificent Envisioning Information by Edward R. Tufte.

West, Mike. MBWest.com (2006). Articles>Reviews>Visual Rhetoric>Information Design

I Love Typography

iLT is designed to inspire its readers, to make people more aware of the typography that is around them. We really cannot escape typography; it's everywhere: on road signs, shampoo bottles, toothpaste, and even on billboard posters, in books and magazines, online...the list is endless, and the possibilities equally so.

I Love Typography. Resources>Graphic Design>Typography>Visual Rhetoric

Theories of Rhetoric and Composition

English 470 will explore some of the major theories of rhetoric and writing which shape the ways that we use language in social, educational, political, and professional situations. We will examine various definitions of rhetoric, key rhetorical concepts and debates, theories of writing, the impact of new technologies on rhetoric and writing, and philosophical questions, among others. Our trajectory for the course can be mapped across several different heuristics. We can say that we will begin with oral traditions of rhetoric, move to written traditions, and then to electric or online instantiations of rhetoric. Another way to think about the structure of the course is philosophically: we start with ancient concepts of language and thought, then move to modernist conceptions, and finish with postmodern ideas about the place of rhetoric in the world. While we won't be able to cover every historical period and every rhetorical concept, you should leave the class with an understanding of what rhetoric is, when, where, and how it can be deployed, and why rhetoric is important. The ultimate goal of the course is for students to understand rhetoric as a productive art that offers transformative possibilities.

Bay, Jennifer. Purdue University (2004). Academic>Courses>Writing>Rhetoric

Theories of the Middle Range in Historical Studies of Writing Practice    

Recent historical examinations of nonliterary, nontheoretical texts within their activity settings have aimed to identify the historically developed communicative and rhetorical resources currently available to writers and to reveal the dynamics of the formation,use,and evolution of those resources. These studies, in examining communal literate practices, combine theoretical, empirical, and practical concerns by building theories of the middle range. This methodological article elaborates how theories of the middle range can guide research through identifying interrelated levels of research questions (originating, specifying, and site specific) and identifying strategic research sites. This article further elaborates methods of finding, selecting, and analyzing relevant texts and placing them within appropriate social and historical contexts.

Bazerman, Charles. Written Communication. Articles>Writing>History>Rhetoric

Fundamentals of Leadership: Communicating a Vision

Today's business climate of outsourcing, in-sourcing, virtual teams, and ROI-driven objectives can leave a manager at any level feeling powerless. Yet, we often see examples of those who can elicit unwavering support from their teams, driving highly effective projects, and getting the best performance from employees despite ever-increasing workloads. What is it about these individuals that makes them stand out as great leaders?

Harris, Kerri. TechCom Manager (2005). Academic>Management>Collaboration>Rhetoric

Could You Mind Your Language? An Investigation of Communicators' Ability to Inhibit Linguistic Bias    

Three experiments that examine communicators' ability to inhibit linguistic bias are reported. Research has shown that communicators use more abstract language (e.g., "Jamie is affectionate" vs. "Jamie kisses Rose") to describe more expected behavior. Recent research has shown that this bias may be overwhelmed by goals to put a "spin" on actions or to manipulate audiences' impressions of actors. Similarly, the present experiments show that people who wish to communicate without bias may often be able to do so. Inhibition occurred when participants selected descriptions from a list of alternatives and when they freely described both expected and unexpected behaviors. However, inhibition failed when participants were asked to freely describe either expected or unexpected behaviors alone.

Douglas, Karen M., Robbie M. Sutton and Katie Wilkin. Journal of Language and Social Psychology (2008). Articles>Language>Professionalism>Rhetoric

The Evolution of Visual Information Retrieval    

This paper seeks to provide a brief overview of those developments which have taken the theory and practice of image and video retrieval into the digital age. Drawing on a voluminous literature, the context in which visual information retrieval takes place is followed by a consideration of the conceptual and practical challenges posed by the representation and recovery of visual material on the basis of its semantic content. An historical account of research endeavours in content-based retrieval, directed towards the automation of these operations in digital image scenarios, provides the main thrust of the paper. Finally, a look forwards locates visual information retrieval research within the wider context of content-based multimedia retrieval.

Enser, Peter. Journal of Information Science (2008). Articles>Content Management>Visual Rhetoric>Search

An Analysis of Failed Queries for Web Image Retrieval    

This paper examines a large number of failed queries submitted to a web image search engine, including real users' search terms and written requests. The results show that failed image queries have a much higher specificity than successful queries because users often employ various refined types to specify their queries. The study explores the refined types further, and finds that failed queries consist of far more conceptual than perceptual refined types. The widely used content-based image retrieval technique, CBIR, can only deal with a small proportion of failed queries; hence, appropriate integration of concept-based techniques is desirable. Based on using the concepts of uniqueness and refinement for categorization, the study also provides a useful discussion on the gaps between image queries and retrieval techniques. The initial results enhance the understanding of failed queries and suggest possible ways to improve image retrieval systems.

Pu, Hsiao-Tieh. Journal of Information Science (2008). Articles>Web Design>Visual Rhetoric>Search

Perceiving Hierarchy Through Intrinsic Color Structure    

Color is an intrinsic visual attribute of form that functions as language and message. The purpose of this study was to investigate objectively structured color combinations as a means to communicate visual order for the purpose of reinforcing information hierarchy. Controlling the visual relationships of hue, value and chroma contrast can significantly assist a person's cognitive ability to assign importance and dominance to a controlled color structure. This research study provided significant findings supporting the hypothesis that intrinsic color structures can be formulated objectively; represent a visual hierarchy; and be perceived in an understandable order. Chi-square analysis for 99 participants was calculated for task effectiveness. To analyze task efficiency, three distinct ANOVA calculations were made for time variations. The documented findings of this study presented explicit evidence that addresses specific mechanisms for objective color ordering. The natural inferences of the study support the proposition that there is a natural relationship between objective color ordering principles and human perception.

Puhalla, Dennis M. Visual Communication (2008). Design>Information Design>Visual Rhetoric>Color

Sustaining the Readers' Interest

Sometimes, we come across articles on technical subjects that are hard to put down. They even make us ruminate over their content, and talk about them. Though these articles are just for our information, they end up staying in our heart by chance or by design. It is not possible to get so far a reach through the technical coverage alone. The authors have presented them so nicely that we even resist any demand to stop in the middle while reading them. We find such articles mostly in news papers and magazines. As an editor, I have my own reasons for that 'Coup de grâce'! We, the technical writers, can surely pick up some of the clues from our brethren - the journalists.

Shankar, Kiruba. Indus (2008). Articles>Writing>Technical Writing>Rhetoric

Police Reform, Task Force Rhetoric, and Traces of Dissent: Rethinking Consensus-as-Outcome in Collaborative Writing Situations    

Pedagogical and scholarly representations of collaborative writing and knowledge construction in technical communication have traditionally recognized consensus as the logical outcome of collaborative work, even as scholars and teachers have acknowledged the value of conflict and "dissensus" in the process of collaborative knowledge building. However, the conflict-laden work product of a Denver task force charged with recommending changes to the city police department's use-of-force policy and proposing a process for police oversight retains the collaborative group's dissensus and in doing so, illustrates an alternative method of collaborative reporting that challenges convention. Such an approach demonstrates a dissensus-based method of reporting that has the potential to open new rhetorical spaces for collaborative stakeholders by gainfully extending collaborative conversations and creating new opportunities for ethos development, thus offering scholars, teachers, and practitioners a way of reimagining the trajectory and outcome of collaborative work.

Knievel, Michael. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication (2008). Articles>TC>Collaboration>Rhetoric

Contextual Narrative: Rethinking Communication In Our Professions

The rich contextual narrative contained in a story makes it a far more effective way of learning than by reading any procedure, best practice, or most other knowledge transfer media. What makes stories so compelling? While we have been taught that people process information, they actually learn by processing patterns. The patterns held in stories hold far more contextual meaning than we intentionally convey, and stay longer with those being told the stories. Will we ever wean customers from calling the help desk? Should we start our manuals with "once upon a time ...?" Is the answer to usability to create a giant template for all Web applications? Which patterns work, and why don't my patterns ever seem to be ones that stick?

Bailie, Rahel Anne. SlideShare (2007). Presentations>Communication>Rhetoric

The Magic of Metaphor

Metaphor teaches. Metaphor influences. Are you drawing on its power? Perhaps not, because many major works on writing for interactive products make little mention of it. To help encourage better use of metaphor, this column describes both the usefulness of shallow metaphors and the potential of deep metaphors, while offering tips and examples.

Jones, Colleen. UXmatters (2008). Articles>Writing>Rhetoric

Grunge Style In Modern Web Design

As Web 2.0 style passes way, it’s time for something new. Few weeks ago we’ve written about the hand-drawing style in modern web-design. And as Web 2.0 style is all about glossy and shiny look, another option would be something rather crude, radical and provoking. Such as the grunge style — dirty look with irregular, nasty, sometimes even ugly and crooked visual elements. Will it establish itself as a trend? Probably not. However, it may be used once some creative and unconventional design approach is needed.

Smashing (2008). Design>Web Design>Visual Rhetoric

Digital Politics: Engaging Voters Online

The 2008 Presidential election's brought a new battleground to the forefront of the political arena - online. The online activities of both Barack Obama and John McCain, and their UK counterparts, highlights the increasing reach and influence of online channels and seems to be setting a trend for elections to come.

Salisbury, Olivia. Webcredible (2008). Articles>Rhetoric>Online>Politics

Text and Image

Whether it's gestures in an oral conversation, type on a page, or flickering images on a screen, each medium of communication includes visual elements. Such elements long have been recognized as rhetorically significant, but the cultural proliferation of digital technologies has heightened interest in the visual dimension of rhetoric. As both consumers and producers, we engage daily with a variety of textual and graphical elements. Text and Image will encourage critical consideration of such encounters. We will examine the affordances and constraints of various forms from the perspectives of both reception and production. Our course assignments will ask you to respond to existing theories and examine them in praxis by producing a variety of image/text artifacts.

Turnley, Melinda. DePaul University (2008). Academic>Courses>Visual Rhetoric

Writing Grant Proposals

A collection of online resources about writing grant proposals, particularly those useful to nonprofit organizations.

Nonprofit Support Center (2004). Resources>Grants>Proposals>Rhetoric

Visual Communication and Web Application Design

In order for a Web application to be "usable", it must be understandable. It needs to communicate, and communicate effectively. When a user interacts with a Web application they have only the visual presentation (the interface) to "tell" them what the application has to offer, and how they can make use of it. As a result, designers must rely on visual communication principles to tell our audience: about the behavior, structure, and purpose of our Web applications. The better at communicating we are, the easier it is for our audience to understand our messages and intentions, and the easier it is for them to use and appreciate our Web applications.

Wroblewski, Luke. Functioning Form (2005). Articles>Web Design>Usability>Visual Rhetoric

What Does Your Audience Want?

Successful visual designers well know the audiences they are designing for, and realize that their audiences exist at multiple levels.

Knemeyer, Dirk. Thread Information Design (2003). Design>Graphic Design>Audience Analysis>Rhetoric

Where Visual Literacy and Interface Design Meet

Scientists tell us that visual communication is natural human behaviour which all normally sighted persons engage in every day and take for granted, yet it is the product of a complex human intelligence that is very poorly understood.

Hugo, Jacques. Usability News (2005). Articles>User Interface>Visual Rhetoric