#25853
Can Many Agents Answer Questions Better than One? 
The paper addresses the issue of how online natural language question answering, based on deep semantic analysis, may compete with currently popular keyword search, open domain information retrieval systems, covering a horizontal domain. We suggest the multiagent question answering approach, where each domain is represented by an agent which tries to answer questions taking into account its specific knowledge. The meta–agent controls the cooperation between question answering agents and chooses the most relevant answer(s). We argue that multiagent question answering is optimal in terms of access to business and financial knowledge, flexibility in query phrasing, and efficiency and usability of advice. The knowledge and advice encoded in the system are initially prepared by domain experts. We analyze the commercial application of multiagent question answering and the robustness of the meta–agent. The paper suggests that a multiagent architecture is optimal when a real world question answering domain combines a number of vertical ones to form a horizontal domain.
Galitsky, Boris and Rajesh Pampapathi. First Monday (2005). Articles>Language>Information Design>Semantic
#18447
Cross Language Information Retrieval
We sometimes refer to our globally interconnected information infrastructure as the World-Wide-Web. At present, however, it is far less than that. For someone who reads only English, it is presently the English-Wide-Web.
Youssef, Moustafa A. Universal Usability (2001). Design>Language>Localization>Web Design
#18445
Developing A Website for Users of Languages Other Than English
Today, the Internet is positioned to be an international mechanism for communication and information exchange, the precursor of a global information superhighway. For this vision to be realized, one important requirement is to enable all languages to be technically available via the Internet, so that when a society is ready to absorb Internet technology, the language capability comes prepackaged. This is a nontrivial multilingual-information processing problem. To appreciate the extent of this issue, it is enough to know that few years ago, English was the native language of 80% of web users. Today, English is the mother tongue of less than half of web users. However, statistics show that the language of about 80% of web sites is English with only about 8% could be classified as multilingual. From the numbers above, making a website universally usable is an important issue and ignoring it may lead to groups of users suffering isolation, rather than enjoying the true interoperability alluded to by the very name of the World Wide Web. However designing websites in languages other than English or multilingual websites confronts designers with many requirements. These requirements generally fall into three categories: data representation, data display and data input requirements. This paper studies these requirements, gives general recommendations for meeting them and provides a list of guidelines for web pages designers. It also gives examples of successful websites implemented in different languages.
Ghanem, Nagia M. Universal Usability (2001). Design>Language>Localization
#18800
An End-to-End Multilingual Content Management System 
This article will not try to answer why there's no end-to-end content management solution that supports the whole process from single-source authoring to multilingual publishing. At least, it cannot be bought off-the-shelf. Only companies with the size of J.D.Edwards are able to integrate the various components. They will even find the resources and the necessary expertise to implement vital components that are not readily available on the market (e.g. multilingual terminology management system).
Vangilbergen, Ludo. STC Proceedings (2002). Design>Content Management>Single Sourcing>Language
#25856
"Free Website Localization" is a collaborative translation project to help webmasters get free multilingual versions of their web site. There are many webmasters who understand English but are native speakers of another language. Thanks to the multicultural nature of its users, Free Localization effectively enables online peer to peer translations. Users can manage, coordinate and exchange website translations by means of a complete set of online localization tools. The service is free.
Vilei, Antonio. Free Localization (2005). Resources>Language>Localization>Web Design
#26855
How Document Design Helps English Learners Master Science
Explores how basic, scaffolded technical-writing exercises can help ESL students gain cognitive maturity, practice science literacy, improve their note taking, and use text signals and science idioms more effectively.
Girill, T.R. ACM SIGDOC (2005). Articles>Education>Document Design>Language
#13937
Language Choice Online: Globalization and Identity in Egypt
The dominance of English on the Internet in the medium's early years caused great consternation about a possible threat to local languages and cultures. Though the hegemony of English online has since weakened, there is still concern about how English and other languages interact online, but there has been almost no research on this issue. This paper combines linguistic analysis, a survey, and interviews to examine English and Arabic language use in online communications by a group of young professionals in Egypt. The study indicates that, among this group, English is used overwhelmingly in Web use and in formal e-mail communication, but that a Romanized version of Egyptian Arabic is used extensively in informal e-mail messages and online chats. This online use of English and Arabic is analyzed in relation to broader social trends of language, technology, globalization, and identity.
Warschauer, Mark, Ghada R. El Said and Ayman Zohry. JCMC (2002). Design>Language>Localization>Middle East
#19332
Inappropriate use of language is one of the most common causes of usability issues in interface design. When using a product (either online or offline) the words used to label functions or buttons are of paramount importance to the user attempting to understand how the object works. After all, these labels are often the only differentiator within a row of identical buttons. If a user has difficulty understanding what these words or labels mean, there is a fundamental problem in mapping functions to their relevant buttons on the interface. If a term is vague, the user is unsure about the resulting action, and if it cannot be understood, it is likely to cause a 'critical' usability error - an inability to complete a simple task. And these difficulties arise surprisingly often - not because users have limited vocabularies, but because designers and developers insist on using terms unfamiliar to them. How does this happen? The one common factor behind every language difficulty is a failure to conduct a user test, or 'phrase audit', with real end-users.
Farrell, Tom. Frontend Infocentre (2000). Design>Language>Web Design>Usability
#22669
The Linguistic Foundation of Labeling
A discussion of why to employ principle-based information architecture.
Warner, Amy J. ASIST (2004). Articles>Language>Information Design
#18500
Localization in Japan and China 
While localization often involves common challenges across all languages and international markets, localizing into Asian markets can be particularly challenging for a number of reasons. The most obvious challenge for many of us is understanding the language itself. Multi-byte character sets and different levels of formality tend to make these projects a bit more complex. They often require more time, slower translation time, and more thorough review and quality assurance.
SDL International (1999). Design>Language>Localization>East Asia
#18913
Localization of Single-Source Content
One of the key motivators of adopting a single-source approach for documentation is the potential cost savings available through the reduced cost of translation. By consolidating multiple documents, version updates, and similar products, translations may be leveraged across components. By creating single-source content with translation in mind, authors are able to create documents that are easy to localize, increase consistency, and reduce costs. The article below provides a summary of the translation benefits of single-sourcing and offers advice for designing a single-source strategy from a localization perspective.
Jones, Adam. STC Proceedings (2002). Design>Language>Localization>Content Management
#11898
Localization: How to Make Your Site Go Round...
Localization is the 'process of altering a program so that it is appropriate for the area in which it is used.' The industry has come to see this issue is relevant to more than just software applications - indeed web sites have the same needs for accessibility via localization. Localization of a web site is done in order to meet the language and cultural needs of a target audience(s). Localization is the key to increasing the universality of the Web.
McDill, Kate. EServer (2001). Design>Language>Localization
#14086
Localizing for Mobile Devices: A Primer
The mobile world and localization: designing for mobile communications; small screens; screens of various types; keyboards versus styluses; operating systems for mobile devices; proper internationalization is necessary.
LISA (2001). Articles>Language>Localization>Web Design
#18501
Multimedia localization is a slow process. It's complicated and, technically, very challenging. It can also be very costly. Based upon the size of the applet, it costs five times as much as routine localization. It is also subject to mavericks, which means no two companies do the same thing; and no two developers in the same company do the same thing. That means every time you take the puzzle apart, it's a brand new task. A company which produced numerous products and had them developed by third-party developers or different teams within its own company, creates a different puzzle each time for you to take apart.
O'Leary, Glyn. SDL International (1998). Design>Language>Localization>Multimedia
#12991
MultilingualWebmaster.com was created to provide an open forum for developers and managers of multilingual web sites. Our goal is share information and innovation and promote 'best practices' in multilingual web site design.
MultilingualWebmaster.com. Resources>Language>Localization>Web Design
#19580
My Computer Doesn't Understand Me: Automated Translation Tools
Can a machine that automatically renders true translations from one language to another become a reality?
Liddiard, S.D. Writer's Block (1998). Design>Language>Web Design>Localization
#31355
Prepare Your Site for the Global Market 
Are you looking for ways to maximize your company's global Web presence? Look no further, as the authors have laid out a step-by-step plan for creating and designing a multilingual site.
Deschamps-Potter, Catherine M. and Amy Plant. Intercom (2008). Articles>Web Design>Localization>Language
#14761
Selecting a Translation Agency
The authors offer advice on choosing translation firms, with special emphasis on the interview process.
Potsus, Whitney Beth and Catherine Deschamps-Potter. Intercom (2002). Design>Language>Translation>Localization
#21397
Synonym Rings and Authority Files
In part 3 of the continuing series on controlled vocabularies and faceted classification, the authors explain synonym rings and authority files and how their use can bridge the gap between natural language and complex controlled vocabularies (taxonomies and thesauri).
Fast, Karl, Fred Leise and Mike Steckel. Boxes and Arrows (2003). Articles>Information Design>Indexing>Language
#23217
A tutorial on the basics of constructing an information retrieval thesaurus. It includes a glossary of thesaurus terms.
Craven, Timothy C. University of Western Ontario (1998). Articles>Language>Information Design>Metadata
#18694
Tips For Developing Smarter Documentation
Eight tips for preparing documentation that might require localization at some point in the future.
Lingo Systems (2002). Design>Language>Localization>Documentation
#14605
Nagy discusses what the translation industry can expect during the new year, including trends in Web site translation, language sensitivity, and agency management strategies, as well as the effects of increased competition.
Nagy, Charlene. Intercom (2003). Design>Language>Localization>Web Design
#15215
Reviews two trends in translation software: machine translation (MT) and translation memory (TM).
Altanero, Tim. Intercom (2000). Design>Language>Translation>Machine Translation
#14640
Bacak, the executive director of the American Translators Association, provides an overview of some important trends in the translation profession.
Bacak, Walter. Intercom (2000). Design>Language>Translation>Localization
#18446
Users from Other Cultures than the U.S.
This paper introduces general recommendations and guidelines for website developers about accommodating diverse users, in particular users from other cultures than the US. The paper shows how cultural differences might affect the usability of the websites. It also provides sample for good websites and some useful links for practitioners on how to create universally usable websites.
Elnahrawy, Eiman M. Universal Usability (2001). Design>Language>Localization
